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{{Infobox Emperor] of the Roman Republic–[March 15, 44 BC (as Dictator of the Roman Republic)| successor =[Augustus (as Roman Emperor)] 84 BC–68 BC
2) Pompeia Sulla 68 BC–63 BC
3) Calpurnia Pisonis 59 BC–44 BC| royal house =[Julio-Claudian Dynasty| father =Gaius Julius Caesar (proconsul of Asia, 90s BC)| mother =Aurelia Cotta [100 BC - 102 BC, [Roman Republic [44 BC (aged 57)], Roman Republic pronunciation ; [English language pronunciation ; July 12 or July 13, 100 BC or 102 BC – March 15, 44 BC), was a Roman Republic military and political leader and one of the most influential men in world history. He played a critical role in the transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire.
A politician of the populares tradition, he formed an unofficial First Triumvirate with Marcus Licinius Crassus and Pompey which dominated Roman politics for several years, but was fiercely opposed by optimates like Cato the Younger and Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus. His conquest of Gaul extended the Roman world all the way to the Atlantic Ocean, and he also conducted the first Caesar's invasions of Britain in 55 BC; the collapse of the triumvirate, however, led to a stand-off with Pompey and the Roman Senate. Leading his legions across the Rubicon, Caesar began a Caesar's civil war in 49 BC from which he became the undisputed master of the Roman world.
After assuming control of government, he began extensive reforms of Roman society and government. He was proclaimed Roman dictator for life, and he heavily centralised the bureaucracy of the Republic. These events provoked a hitherto friend of Caesar, Marcus Junius Brutus, and a group of other senators, to assassinate the dictator on the Ides of March (March 15) in 44 BC. The assassins hoped to restore the normal running of the Republic, but they provoked another Roman civil war, which led eventually to the establishment of the autocratic Roman Empire by Caesar's adopted heir, Augustus. In 42 BC, two years after his assassination, the Roman Senate officially sanctified Caesar as one of the Roman mythology.
Much of Caesar's life is known from his own Julius Caesar#Literary works (Commentarii) on his military campaigns, and other contemporary sources such as the letters and speeches of his political rival Cicero, the historical writings of Sallust, and the poetry of Catullus. Many more details of his life are recorded by later historians, such as Appian, Suetonius, Plutarch, Cassius Dio and Strabo.
Life
Early life
Caesar was born in 100 BC - 102 BC into a patrician family, the gens Julius, which claimed descent from Iulus, son of the legendary Troy prince Aeneas, supposedly the son of the goddess Venus (mythology).Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars: Julius 6; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.41; Virgil, Aeneid The cognomen "Caesar" originated, according to Pliny the Elder, with an ancestor who was born by caesarian section (from the Latin verb to cut, caedo, caedere, cecidi, caesum).Pliny the Elder, Natural History 7.7. The misconception that Julius Caesar himself was born by Caesarian section dates back at least to the 10th century (Suda kappa 1199). However, he wasn't the first to bear the name, and in his time the procedure was only performed on dead women, while Caesar's mother, Aurelia Cotta, lived long after he was born. The Augustan History suggests three alternative explanations: that the first Caesar had a thick head of hair (Latin caesaries); that he had bright grey eyes (Latin oculis caesiis); or that he killed an elephant (caesai in Moorish) in battle.Augustan History: Aelius 2. Caesar issued coins featuring images of elephants, suggesting that he favoured this interpretation of his name. Coins of Julius Caesar
Despite their ancient pedigree, the Julii Caesares were not especially politically influential, having produced only three Roman consul. Caesar's father, also called Gaius Julius Caesar (proconsul of Asia, 90s BC), reached the rank of praetor, the second highest of the Republic's elected magistracies, and governed the province of Asia (Roman province), perhaps through the influence of his prominent brother-in-law Gaius Marius.Suetonius, Julius 1; Plutarch, Caesar 1, Marius 6; Pliny the Elder, Natural History 7.54; Inscriptiones Italiae, 13.3.51-52 His mother, Aurelia Cotta, came from an influential family which had produced several consuls. Marcus Antonius Gnipho, an orator and grammarian of Gaulish origin, was employed as Caesar's tutor.Suetonius, Lives of Eminent Grammarians Wikisource:Lives of Eminent Grammarians#7 Caesar had two sisters, both called Julia Caesaris (sister of Julius Caesar). Little else is recorded of Caesar's childhood. Suetonius and Plutarch's biographies of him both begin abruptly in Caesar's teens; the opening paragraphs of both appear to be lost.Plutarch, Caesar 1; Suetonius, Julius 1
Caesar's formative years were a time of turmoil. The Social War (91–88 BC) was fought from 91 to 88 BC between Rome and her Italian allies over the issue of Roman citizenship, while Mithridates VI of Pontus of Pontus threatened Rome's eastern provinces. Domestically, Roman politics was divided between two broad factions, the optimates, who favoured aristocratic rule via the Roman Senate, and the populares, who preferred to appeal directly to the electorate. Caesar's uncle Marius was a popularis; Marius' protégé and rival Lucius Cornelius Sulla was an optimas. Both Marius and Sulla distinguished themselves in the Social War (91–88 BC), and both wanted command of the war against Mithridates, which was initially given to Sulla; but when Sulla left the city to take command of his army, a tribune passed a law transferring the appointment to Marius. Sulla responded by marching on Rome, reclaiming his command and forcing Marius into exile, but when he left on campaign Marius returned at the head of a makeshift army. He and his ally Lucius Cornelius Cinna seized the city and declared Sulla a public enemy, and Marius's troops took violent revenge on Sulla's supporters. Marius died early in 86 BC, but his faction remained in power.Appian, Civil Wars 1.34-75; Plutarch, Marius 32-46, Sulla 6-10; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.15-20; Eutropius 5; Florus, Epitome of Roman History Wikisource:Epitome of Roman History/Book 2#6, Wikisource:Epitome of Roman History/Book 2#9
In 85 BC Caesar's father died suddenly while putting on his shoes one morning,Suetonius, Julius 1; Pliny the Elder, Natural History 7.54 and at sixteen, Caesar was the head of the family. The following year he was nominated to be the new Flamen Dialis, high priest of Jupiter (mythology), as Lucius Cornelius Merula (consul 87 BC), the previous incumbent, had died in Marius's purges.Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.22; Florus, Epitome of Roman History Wikisource:Epitome of Roman History/Book 2#9 Since the holder of that position not only had to be a patrician but also be married to a patrician, he broke off his engagement to Cossutia, a girl of wealthy equestrian (Roman) family he had been betrothed to since boyhood, and married Cinna's daughter Cornelia Cinna minor.Suetonius, Julius 1; Plutarch, Caesar 1; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.41
Then, having brought Mithridates to terms, Sulla returned to finish the civil war against Marius' followers. After a campaign throughout Italy he seized Rome at the Battle of the Colline Gate in November 82 BC and had himself appointed to the revived office of Roman dictator; but whereas a dictator was traditionally appointed for six months at a time, Sulla's appointment had no term limit. Statues of Marius were destroyed and Marius' body was exhumed and thrown in the Tiber. Cinna was already dead, killed by his own soldiers in a mutiny.Appian, Civil Wars 1.76-102; Plutarch, Sulla 24-33; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.23-28; Eutropius, Abridgement of Roman History 5; Florus, Epitome of Roman History Wikisource:Epitome of Roman History/Book 2#9 Sulla's proscriptions saw hundreds of his political enemies killed or exiled. Caesar, as the nephew of Marius and son-in-law of Cinna, was targeted. He was stripped of his inheritance, his wife's dowry and his priesthood, but refused to divorce Cornelia and was forced to go into hiding. The threat against him was lifted by the intervention of his mother's family, which included supporters of Sulla, and the Vestal Virgins. Sulla gave in reluctantly, and is said to have declared that he saw many a Marius in Caesar.
Early career
Rather than returning to Rome, Caesar joined the army, serving under Marcus Minucius Thermus in Asia (Roman province) and Servilius Isauricus in Cilicia. He served with distinction, winning the Civic Crown for his part in the siege of Mytilene. On a mission to Bithynia to secure the assistance of King Nicomedes IV of Bithynia's fleet, he spent so long at his court that rumours of an affair with the king arose, which would persist for the rest of his life.Suetonius, Julius 2-3; Plutarch, Caesar 2-3; Cassius Dio, Roman History 43.20 Ironically, the loss of his priesthood had allowed him to pursue a military career: the Flamen Dialis was not permitted to touch a horse, sleep three nights outside his own bed or one night outside Rome, or look upon an army.William Smith, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities: Flamen
In 80 BC, after two years in office, Sulla resigned his dictatorship, re-established consular government and, after serving as consul, retired to private life.Appian. Civil Wars 1.103 Caesar later ridiculed Sulla's relinquishing of the dictatorship—"Sulla did not know his political ABC's".Suetonius, Julius 77. He died two years later in 78 BC and was accorded a state funeral.Plutarch, Sulla 36-38 Hearing of Sulla's death, Caesar felt safe enough to return to Rome. Lacking means since his inheritance was confiscated, he acquired a modest house in the Subura, a lower class neighborhood of Rome.Suetonius, Julius 46 His return coincided with an attempted anti-Sullan coup by Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (120-77 BC), but Caesar, lacking confidence in Lepidus's leadership, did not participate.Suetonius, Julius 3; Appian, Civil Wars 1.107 Instead he turned to legal advocacy. He became known for his exceptional oratory, accompanied by impassioned gestures and a high-pitched voice, and ruthless prosecution of former governors notorious for extortion and Political corruption. Even Cicero praised him: "Come now, what orator would you rank above him...?"Suetonius, Julius 55 Aiming at rhetorical perfection, Caesar travelled to Rhodes in 75 BC to study under Apollonius Molon, who had previously taught Cicero.Suetonius, Julius 4. Plutarch (Caesar 3-4) reports the same events but follows a different chonology.
On the way across the Aegean Sea,Again, according to Suetonius's chronology (Julius 4). Plutarch (Caesar 1.8-2) says this happened earlier, on his return from Nicomedes's court. Velleius Paterculus (Roman History 2:41.3-42 says merely that it happened when he was a young man. Caesar was kidnapped by Cilician piracy and held prisoner in the Dodecanese islet of Farmakos.Plutarch, Caesar 1-2 He maintained an attitude of superiority throughout his captivity. When the pirates thought to demand a ransom of twenty Talent (weight) of gold, he insisted they ask for fifty. After the ransom was paid, Caesar raised a fleet, pursued and captured the pirates, and imprisoned them in Pergamon. The governor of Asia (Roman province) refused to execute them as Caesar demanded, preferring to sell them as slaves, but Caesar returned to the coast and had them crucified on his own authority, as he had promised to when in captivity – a promise the pirates had taken as a joke. He then proceeded to Rhodes, but was soon called back into military action in Asia, raising a band of Auxiliaries (Roman military) to repel an incursion from Pontus.
On his return to Rome he was elected military tribune, a first step on the cursus honorum of Roman politics. The Third Servile War against Spartacus took place around this time (73 - 71 BC), but it is not recorded what role, if any, Caesar played in it. He was elected quaestor for 69 BC, and during that year he delivered the funeral oration for his aunt Julia, widow of Marius, and included images of Marius, unseen since the days of Sulla, in the funeral procession. His own wife Cornelia also died that year. After her funeral Caesar went to serve his quaestorship in Hispania under Antistius Vetus. While there he is said to have encountered a statue of Alexander the Great, and realised with dissatisfaction he was now at an age when Alexander had the world at his feet, while he had achieved comparatively little. He requested, and was granted, an early discharge from his duties, and returned to Roman politics. On his return he married Pompeia Sulla, a granddaughter of Sulla.Suetonius, Julius 5-8; Plutarch, Caesar 5; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.43 He was elected aedile and restored the trophies of Marius's victories; a controversial move given the Sullan regime was still in place. He also brought prosecutions against men who had benefited from Sulla's proscriptions, and spent a great deal of borrowed money on public works and games, outshining his colleague Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus. He was also suspected of involvement in two abortive coup attempts.Suetonius, Julius 9-11; Plutarch, Caesar 5.6-6; Cassius Dio, Roman History 37.8, 10
Caesar comes to prominence
, Vienna
63 BC was an eventful year for Caesar. He persuaded a tribune, Titus Labienus, to prosecute the optimate senator Gaius Rabirius (senator) for the political murder, 37 years previously, of the tribune Lucius Appuleius Saturninus, and had himself appointed as one of the two judges to try the case. Rabirius was defended by both Cicero and Quintus Hortensius, but was convicted of perduellio (treason). While he was exercising his right of appeal to the people, the praetor Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer adjourned the assembly by taking down the military flag from the Janiculum hill. Labienus could have resumed the prosecution at a later session, but did not do so: Caesar's point had been made, and the matter was allowed to drop.Cicero, For Gaius Rabirius; Cassius Dio, Roman History 26-28 Labienus would remain an important ally of Caesar over the next decade.
The same year, Caesar ran for election to the post of Pontifex Maximus, chief priest of the Roman state religion, after the death of Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius, who had been appointed to the post by Sulla. He ran against two powerful optimates, the former consuls Quintus Lutatius Catulus and Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus (consul 79 BCE). There were accusations of bribery by all sides. Caesar is said to have told his mother on the morning of the election that he would return as Pontifex Maximus or not at all, expecting to be forced into exile by the enormous debts he had run up to fund his campaign. In the event he won comfortably, despite his opponents' greater experience and standing.Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.43; Plutarch, Caesar 7; Suetonius, Julius 13 The post came with an official residence on the Via Sacra.
When Cicero, who was consul that year, exposed Catiline's conspiracy to seize control of the republic, Catulus and others accused Caesar of involvement in the plot.Sallust, Catiline War 49 Caesar, who had been elected praetor for the following year, took part in the debate in the Senate on how to deal with the conspirators. During the debate, Caesar was passed a note. Cato the Younger, who would become his most implacable political opponent, accused him of corresponding with the conspirators, and demanded that the message be read aloud. Caesar passed him the note, which, embarrassingly, turned out to be a love letter from Cato's half-sister Servilia Caepionis. Caesar argued persuasively against the death penalty for the conspirators, proposing life imprisonment instead, but a speech by Cato proved decisive, and the conspirators were executed.Cicero, Against Catiline 4.7-9; Sallust, Catiline War 50-55; Plutarch, Caesar 7.5-8.3, Cicero 20-21, Cato the Younger 22-24; Suetonius, Julius 14 The following year a commission was set up to investigate the conspiracy, and Caesar was again accused of complicity. On Cicero's evidence that he had reported what he knew of the plot voluntarily, however, he was cleared, and one of his accusers, and also one of the commissioners, were sent to prison.Suetonius, Julius 17
While praetor in 62 BC, Caesar supported Metellus Celer, now tribune, in proposing controversial legislation, and the pair were so obstinate they were suspended from office by the Senate. Caesar attempted to continue to perform his duties, only giving way when violence was threatened. The Senate was persuaded to reinstate him after he quelled public demonstrations in his favour.Suetonius, Julius 16
That year the festival of the Bona Dea ("good goddess") was held at Caesar's house. No men were permitted to attend, but a young patrician named Publius Clodius Pulcher managed to gain admittance disguised as a woman, apparently for the purpose of seducing Caesar's wife Pompeia Sulla. He was caught and prosecuted for sacrilege. Caesar gave no evidence against Clodius at his trial, careful not to offend one of the most powerful patrician families of Rome, and Clodius was acquitted after rampant bribery and intimidation. Nevertheless, Caesar divorced Pompeia, saying that "my wife ought not even to be under suspicion."Cicero, Letters to Atticus s:Letters to Atticus/1.12, s:Letters to Atticus/1.13, s:Letters to Atticus/1.14; Plutarch, Caesar 9-10; Cassius Dio, Roman History 37.45
After his praetorship, Caesar was appointed to govern Hispania Ulterior (Outer Iberian peninsula), but he was still in considerable debt and needed to satisfy his creditors before he could leave. He turned to Marcus Licinius Crassus, one of Rome's richest men. In return for political support in his opposition to the interests of Pompey, Crassus paid some of Caesar's debts and acted as guarantor for others. Even so, to avoid becoming a private citizen and open to prosecution for his debts, Caesar left for his province before his praetorship had ended. In Hispania he conquered the Callaici and Lusitanians, being hailed as imperator by his troops, reformed the law regarding debts, and completed his governorship in high esteem.Plutarch, Caesar 11-12; Suetonius, Julius 18.1
Being hailed as imperator entitled Caesar to a Roman triumph. However, he also wanted to stand for consul, the most senior magistracy in the republic. If he were to celebrate a triumph, he would have to remain a soldier and stay outside the city until the ceremony, but to stand for election he would need to lay down his command and enter Rome as a private citizen. He could not do both in the time available. He asked the senate for permission to stand in absentia, but Cato blocked the proposal. Faced with the choice between a triumph and the consulship, Caesar chose the consulship.Plutarch, Julius 13; Suetonius, Julius 18.2
First consulship and first triumvirate
The election was dirty. Caesar canvassed Cicero for support, and made an alliance with the wealthy Lucceius, but the establishment threw its financial weight behind the conservative Bibulus, and even Cato, with his reputation for incorruptibility, is said to have resorted to bribery in his favour. Caesar and Bibulus were elected as consuls for 59 BC.Plutarch, Caesar 13-14; Suetonius 19
Caesar was already in Marcus Licinius Crassus's political debt, but he also made overtures to Pompey, who was unsuccessfully fighting the Senate for ratification of his eastern settlements and farmland for his veterans. Pompey and Crassus had been at odds since they were consuls together in 70 BC, and Caesar knew if he allied himself with one he would lose the support of the other, so he endeavoured to reconcile them. Between the three of them, they had enough money and political influence to control public business. This informal alliance, known as the First Triumvirate (rule of three men), was cemented by the marriage of Pompey to Caesar's daughter Julia (daughter of Julius Caesar).Cicero, Letters to Atticus s:Letters to Atticus/2.1, s:Letters to Atticus/2.3, s:Letters to Atticus/2.17; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.44; Plutarch, Caesar 13-14, Pompey 47, Crassus 14; Suetonius, Julius 19.2; Cassius Dio, Roman History 37.54-58 Caesar also married again, this time Calpurnia Pisonis, daughter of Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, who was elected to the consulship for the following year.Suetonius, Julius 21
Caesar proposed a law for the redistribution of public lands to the poor, a proposal supported by Pompey, by force of arms if need be, and by Crassus, making the triumvirate public. Pompey filled the city with soldiers, and the triumvirate's opponents were intimidated. Bibulus attempted to declare the omens unfavourable and thus void the new law, but was driven from the forum by Caesar's armed supporters. His lictors had their fasces broken, two tribunes accompanying him were wounded, and Bibulus himself had a bucket of excrement thrown over him. In fear of his life, he retired to his house for the rest of the year, issuing occasional proclamations of bad omens. These attempts to obstruct Caesar's legislation proved ineffective. Roman satirists ever after referred to the year as "the consulship of Julius and Caesar".Cicero, Letters to Atticus s:Letters to Atticus/2.15, s:Letters to Atticus/2.16, s:Letters to Atticus/2.17, s:Letters to Atticus/2.18, s:Letters to Atticus/2.19, s:Letters to Atticus/2.20, s:Letters to Atticus/2.21; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 44.4; Plutarch, Caesar 14, Pompey 47-48, Cato the Younger 32-33; Cassius Dio, Roman History 38.1-8
When Caesar and Bibulus were first elected, the aristocracy tried to limit Caesar's future power by allotting the woods and pastures of Italy, rather than governorship of a province, as their proconsular duties after their year of office was over.Suetonius, Julius 19.2 With the help of Piso and Pompey, Caesar later had this overturned, and was instead appointed to govern Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy) and Illyricum (Roman province) (the western Balkans), with Transalpine Gaul (southern France) later added, giving him command of four legions. His term of office, and thus his immunity from prosecution, was set at five years, rather than the usual one.Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2:44.4; Plutarch, Caesar 14.10, Crassus 14.3, Pompey 48, Cato the Younger 33.3; Suetonius, Julius 22; Cassius Dio, Roman History 38:8.5 When his consulship ended, Caesar narrowly avoided prosecution for the irregularities of his year in office, and quickly left for his province.Suetonius, Julius 23
Conquest of Gaul
with the head of captive Gaul 48 BC, following the campaigns of Caesar.Caesar was still deeply in debt, and there was money to be made as a provincial governor, whether by extortionSee Cicero's speeches s:Against Verres for an example of a former provincial governor successfully prosecuted for illegally enriching himself at his province's expense. or by military adventurism. Caesar had four legions under his command, two of his provinces, Illyricum (Roman province) and Gallia Narbonensis, bordered on unconquered territory, and independent Gaul was known to be unstable. Rome's allies the Aedui had been defeated by their Gallic rivals, with the help of a contingent of Germanic peoples Suebi under Ariovistus, who had settled in conquered Aeduan land, and the Helvetii were mobilising for a mass migration, which the Romans feared had warlike intent. Caesar raised two new legions and defeated first the Helvetii, then Ariovistus, and left his army in winter quarters in the territory of the Sequani, signaling that his interest in the lands outside Gallia Narbonensis would not be temporary.Cicero, Letters to Atticus s:Letters to Atticus/1.19; Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 1; Appian, Gallic Wars Epit. 3; Cassius Dio, Roman History 38.31-50
He began his second year with double the military strength he had begun with, having raised another two legions in Cisalpine Gaul during the winter. The legality of this was dubious, as the Cisalpine Gauls were not Roman citizens. In response to Caesar's activities the previous year, the Belgae tribes of north-eastern Gaul had begun to arm themselves. Caesar treated this as an aggressive move, and, after an inconclusive engagement against a united Belgic army, conquered the tribes piecemeal. Meanwhile, one legion, commanded by Crassus' son Publius, began the conquest of the tribes of the Armorica.Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 2; Appian, Gallic Wars Epit. 4; Cassius Dio, Roman History 39.1-5
During the spring of 56 BC the Triumvirate held a conference at Luca (modern Lucca) in Cisalpine Gaul. Rome was in turmoil, and Publius Clodius Pulcher' populist campaigns had been undermining relations between Crassus and Pompey. The meeting renewed the Triumvirate and extended Caesar's proconsulship for another five years. Crassus and Pompey would be consuls again, with similarly long-term proconsulships to follow: Syria for Crassus, the Hispanian provinces for Pompey.Cicero, Letters to his brother Quintus 2.3; Suetonius, Julius 24; Plutarch, Caesar 21, Crassus 14-15, Pompey 51 The conquest of Armorica was completed when Caesar defeated the Veneti (Gaul) in a naval battle, while young Crassus conquered the Aquitani of the south-west. By the end of campaigning in 56 BC only the Morini and Menapii of the coastal Low Countries still held out.Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 3; Cassius Dio, Roman History 39.40-46
In 55 BC Caesar repelled an incursion into Gaul by the Germanic Usipetes and Tencteri, and followed it up by building a bridge across the Rhine and making a show of force in Germanic territory, before returning and dismantling the bridge. Late that summer, having subdued the Morini and Menapii, he crossed to Britain, claiming that the Britons had aided the Veneti against him the previous year. His intelligence was poor, and although he gained a beachhead on the Kent coast he was unable to advance further, and returned to Gaul for the winter.Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 4; Appian, Gallic Wars Epit. 4; Cassius Dio, Roman History 47-53 He returned the following year, better prepared and with a larger force, and achieved more. He advanced inland, establishing Mandubracius of the Trinovantes as a friendly king and bringing his rival, Cassivellaunus, to terms. But poor harvests led to widespread revolt in Gaul, led by Ambiorix of the Eburones, forcing Caesar to campaign through the winter and into the following year. With the defeat of Ambiorix, Caesar believed Gaul was now pacified.Cicero, Letters to friends Wikisource:Letters to friends/7.6, Wikisource:Letters to friends/7.7, Wikisource:Letters to friends/7.8, Wikisource:Letters to friends/7.10, Wikisource:Letters to friends/7.17; Letters to his brother Quintus Wikisource:Letters to his brother Quintus/2.13, Wikisource:Letters to his brother Quintus/2.15, Wikisource:Letters to his brother Quintus/3.1; Letters to Atticus Wikisource:Letters to Atticus/4.15, Wikisource:Letters to Atticus/4.17, Wikisource:Letters to Atticus/4.18; Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 5; Cassius Dio, Roman History 40.1-11
While Caesar was in Britain his daughter Julia, Pompey's wife, had died in childbirth. Caesar tried to resecure Pompey's support by offering him his great-niece Octavia Minor in marriage, alienating Octavia's husband Gaius Claudius Marcellus Minor, but Pompey declined. In 53 BC Crassus was killed leading a failed invasion of Parthia. Rome was on the edge of violence. Pompey was appointed sole consul as an emergency measure, and married Cornelia Metella, daughter of Caesar's political opponent Quintus Metellus Scipio, whom he invited to become his consular colleague once order was restored. The Triumvirate was dead.Suetonius, Julius ; Plutarch, Caesar 23.5, Pompey 53-55, Crassus 16-33; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 46-47
In 52 BC another, larger revolt erupted in Gaul, led by Vercingetorix of the Arverni. Vercingetorix managed to unite the Gallic tribes and proved an astute commander, defeating Caesar in several engagements including the Battle of Gergovia, but Caesar's elaborate siege-works at the Battle of Alesia finally forced his surrender.Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 7; Cassius Dio, Roman History 40.33-42 Despite scattered outbreaks of List of Roman battles the following year,Aulus Hirtius, Commentaries on the Gallic War s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 8 Gaul was effectively conquered.
Titus Labienus was Caesar's most senior legatus during his Gallic campaigns, having the status of propraetor.Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 1#21 Other prominent men who served under him included his relative Lucius Julius Caesar, Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 7#65 Crassus' sons MarcusJulius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 6#6 and Publius,Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 2#34 Cicero's brother Quintus Tullius Cicero,Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 6#32 &f. Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus,Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 3#11 and Mark Antony.Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 7#81 &f.
Civil war
In 50 BC, the Senate, led by Pompey, ordered Caesar to return to Rome and disband his army because his term as Proconsul had finished. Moreover, the Senate forbade Caesar to stand for a second consulship in absentia. Caesar thought he would be prosecuted and politically marginalised if he entered Rome without the immunity enjoyed by a Consul or without the power of his army. Pompey accused Caesar of insubordination and treason. On January 10, 49 BC Caesar crossed the Rubicon (the frontier boundary of Italy) with only Legio XIII Gemina and ignited Caesar's civil war. Upon crossing the Rubicon, Caesar is reported to have quoted the Athenian playwright Menander, saying alea iacta est, "the dice have been thrown".
The Optimates, including Metellus Scipio and Cato the Younger, fled to the south, having little confidence in the newly raised troops especially since so many cities in northern Italy had voluntarily capitulated. An attempted stand by a consulate legion in Samarium resulted in the consul being handed over by the defenders and the legion surrendering without significant fighting. Despite greatly outnumbering Caesar, who only had his Legio XIII Gemina with him, Pompey had no intention to fight. Caesar pursued Pompey to Brindisium, hoping to capture Pompey before the trapped Senate and their legions could escape. Pompey managed to elude him, sailing out of the harbor before Caesar could break the barricades.
Lacking a navy since Pompey had already scoured the coasts of all ships for evacuation of his forces, Caesar decided to head for Hispania saying "I set forth to fight an army without a leader, so as later to fight a leader without an army." Leaving Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir) as prefect of Rome, and the rest of Italy under Mark Antony as tribune, Caesar made an astonishing 27-day route-march to Hispania, rejoining two of his Gallic legions, where he defeated Pompey's lieutenants. He then returned east, to challenge Pompey in Greece where on July 10, 48 BC at Battle of Dyrrhachium (48 BC) Caesar barely avoided a catastrophic defeat when the line of fortification was broken. He decisively defeated Pompey, despite Pompey's numerical advantage (nearly twice the number of infantry and considerably more cavalry), at Battle of Pharsalus in an exceedingly short engagement in 48 BC.
In Rome, Caesar was appointed Roman dictator, with Mark Antony as his Master of the Horse; Caesar resigned this dictatorate after 11 days and was elected to a second term as consul with Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus (consul 48 BCE) as his colleague.
He pursued Pompey to Alexandria, where Pompey was murdered by a former Roman officer serving in the court of Ptolemy XIII of Egypt. Caesar then became involved with the Alexandrine civil war between Ptolemy and his sister, wife, and co-regent queen, the Pharaoh Cleopatra VII of Egypt. Perhaps as a result of Ptolemy's role in Pompey's murder, Caesar sided with Cleopatra; he is reported to have wept at the sight of Pompey's head, which was offered to him by Ptolemy's chamberlain Pothinus as a gift. In any event, Caesar defeated the Ptolemaic forces in 47 BC in the Battle of the Nile (47 BC) and installed Cleopatra as ruler, with whom he is suspected to have fathered a son, Caesarion. Caesar and Cleopatra celebrated their victory of the Alexandrine civil war through a triumphant procession on the Nile in the spring of 47 B.C. The royal barge was accompanied by 400 additional ships, introducing Caesar to the luxurious lifestyle of the Egyptian pharoahs.
Caesar and Cleopatra never married: they could not do so under Roman Law. The institution of marriage was only recognised between two Roman citizens; Cleopatra was Queen of Egypt. In Roman eyes, this did not constitute adultery, and Caesar is believed to have continued his relationship with Cleopatra throughout his last marriage, which lasted 14 years and produced no children. Cleopatra visited Rome on more than one occasion, residing in Caesar's villa just outside Rome across the Tiber.
After spending the first months of 47 BC in Egypt, Caesar went to the Middle East, where he annihilated King Pharnaces II of Pontus in the Battle of Zela; his victory was so swift and complete that he mocked Pompey's previous victories over such poor enemies. Thence, he proceeded to Africa to deal with the remnants of Pompey's senatorial supporters. He quickly gained a significant victory at Battle of Thapsus in 46 BC over the forces of Metellus Scipio (who died in the battle) and Cato the Younger (who committed suicide). Nevertheless, Pompey's sons Gnaeus Pompeius and Sextus Pompeius, together with Titus Labienus, Caesar's former propraetorian legate (legatus promagistrates) and second in command in the Gallic War, escaped to Hispania. Caesar gave chase and defeated the last remnants of opposition in the Battle of Munda in March 45 BC. During this time, Caesar was elected to his third and fourth terms as consul in 46 BC (with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)) and 45 BC (without colleague).
Aftermath of the civil war
While he was still campaigning in Hispania, the Senate began bestowing honours on Caesar in absentia. Caesar had not proscribed his enemies, instead pardoning almost all, and there was no serious public opposition
{{Infobox Emperor] of the Roman Republic–[March 15, 44 BC (as Dictator of the Roman Republic)| successor =[Augustus (as Roman Emperor)] 84 BC–68 BC
2) Pompeia Sulla 68 BC–63 BC
3) Calpurnia Pisonis 59 BC–44 BC| royal house =[Julio-Claudian Dynasty| father =Gaius Julius Caesar (proconsul of Asia, 90s BC)| mother =Aurelia Cotta [100 BC - 102 BC, [Roman Republic [44 BC (aged 57)], Roman Republic pronunciation ; [English language pronunciation ; July 12 or July 13, 100 BC or 102 BC – March 15, 44 BC), was a Roman Republic military and political leader and one of the most influential men in world history. He played a critical role in the transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire.
A politician of the populares tradition, he formed an unofficial First Triumvirate with Marcus Licinius Crassus and Pompey which dominated Roman politics for several years, but was fiercely opposed by optimates like Cato the Younger and Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus. His conquest of Gaul extended the Roman world all the way to the Atlantic Ocean, and he also conducted the first Caesar's invasions of Britain in 55 BC; the collapse of the triumvirate, however, led to a stand-off with Pompey and the Roman Senate. Leading his legions across the Rubicon, Caesar began a Caesar's civil war in 49 BC from which he became the undisputed master of the Roman world.
After assuming control of government, he began extensive reforms of Roman society and government. He was proclaimed Roman dictator for life, and he heavily centralised the bureaucracy of the Republic. These events provoked a hitherto friend of Caesar, Marcus Junius Brutus, and a group of other senators, to assassinate the dictator on the Ides of March (March 15) in 44 BC. The assassins hoped to restore the normal running of the Republic, but they provoked another Roman civil war, which led eventually to the establishment of the autocratic Roman Empire by Caesar's adopted heir, Augustus. In 42 BC, two years after his assassination, the Roman Senate officially sanctified Caesar as one of the Roman mythology.
Much of Caesar's life is known from his own Julius Caesar#Literary works (Commentarii) on his military campaigns, and other contemporary sources such as the letters and speeches of his political rival Cicero, the historical writings of Sallust, and the poetry of Catullus. Many more details of his life are recorded by later historians, such as Appian, Suetonius, Plutarch, Cassius Dio and Strabo.
Life
Early life
Caesar was born in 100 BC - 102 BC into a patrician family, the gens Julius, which claimed descent from Iulus, son of the legendary Troy prince Aeneas, supposedly the son of the goddess Venus (mythology).Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars: Julius 6; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.41; Virgil, Aeneid The cognomen "Caesar" originated, according to Pliny the Elder, with an ancestor who was born by caesarian section (from the Latin verb to cut, caedo, caedere, cecidi, caesum).Pliny the Elder, Natural History 7.7. The misconception that Julius Caesar himself was born by Caesarian section dates back at least to the 10th century (Suda kappa 1199). However, he wasn't the first to bear the name, and in his time the procedure was only performed on dead women, while Caesar's mother, Aurelia Cotta, lived long after he was born. The Augustan History suggests three alternative explanations: that the first Caesar had a thick head of hair (Latin caesaries); that he had bright grey eyes (Latin oculis caesiis); or that he killed an elephant (caesai in Moorish) in battle.Augustan History: Aelius 2. Caesar issued coins featuring images of elephants, suggesting that he favoured this interpretation of his name. Coins of Julius Caesar
Despite their ancient pedigree, the Julii Caesares were not especially politically influential, having produced only three Roman consul. Caesar's father, also called Gaius Julius Caesar (proconsul of Asia, 90s BC), reached the rank of praetor, the second highest of the Republic's elected magistracies, and governed the province of Asia (Roman province), perhaps through the influence of his prominent brother-in-law Gaius Marius.Suetonius, Julius 1; Plutarch, Caesar 1, Marius 6; Pliny the Elder, Natural History 7.54; Inscriptiones Italiae, 13.3.51-52 His mother, Aurelia Cotta, came from an influential family which had produced several consuls. Marcus Antonius Gnipho, an orator and grammarian of Gaulish origin, was employed as Caesar's tutor.Suetonius, Lives of Eminent Grammarians Wikisource:Lives of Eminent Grammarians#7 Caesar had two sisters, both called Julia Caesaris (sister of Julius Caesar). Little else is recorded of Caesar's childhood. Suetonius and Plutarch's biographies of him both begin abruptly in Caesar's teens; the opening paragraphs of both appear to be lost.Plutarch, Caesar 1; Suetonius, Julius 1
Caesar's formative years were a time of turmoil. The Social War (91–88 BC) was fought from 91 to 88 BC between Rome and her Italian allies over the issue of Roman citizenship, while Mithridates VI of Pontus of Pontus threatened Rome's eastern provinces. Domestically, Roman politics was divided between two broad factions, the optimates, who favoured aristocratic rule via the Roman Senate, and the populares, who preferred to appeal directly to the electorate. Caesar's uncle Marius was a popularis; Marius' protégé and rival Lucius Cornelius Sulla was an optimas. Both Marius and Sulla distinguished themselves in the Social War (91–88 BC), and both wanted command of the war against Mithridates, which was initially given to Sulla; but when Sulla left the city to take command of his army, a tribune passed a law transferring the appointment to Marius. Sulla responded by marching on Rome, reclaiming his command and forcing Marius into exile, but when he left on campaign Marius returned at the head of a makeshift army. He and his ally Lucius Cornelius Cinna seized the city and declared Sulla a public enemy, and Marius's troops took violent revenge on Sulla's supporters. Marius died early in 86 BC, but his faction remained in power.Appian, Civil Wars 1.34-75; Plutarch, Marius 32-46, Sulla 6-10; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.15-20; Eutropius 5; Florus, Epitome of Roman History Wikisource:Epitome of Roman History/Book 2#6, Wikisource:Epitome of Roman History/Book 2#9
In 85 BC Caesar's father died suddenly while putting on his shoes one morning,Suetonius, Julius 1; Pliny the Elder, Natural History 7.54 and at sixteen, Caesar was the head of the family. The following year he was nominated to be the new Flamen Dialis, high priest of Jupiter (mythology), as Lucius Cornelius Merula (consul 87 BC), the previous incumbent, had died in Marius's purges.Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.22; Florus, Epitome of Roman History Wikisource:Epitome of Roman History/Book 2#9 Since the holder of that position not only had to be a patrician but also be married to a patrician, he broke off his engagement to Cossutia, a girl of wealthy equestrian (Roman) family he had been betrothed to since boyhood, and married Cinna's daughter Cornelia Cinna minor.Suetonius, Julius 1; Plutarch, Caesar 1; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.41
Then, having brought Mithridates to terms, Sulla returned to finish the civil war against Marius' followers. After a campaign throughout Italy he seized Rome at the Battle of the Colline Gate in November 82 BC and had himself appointed to the revived office of Roman dictator; but whereas a dictator was traditionally appointed for six months at a time, Sulla's appointment had no term limit. Statues of Marius were destroyed and Marius' body was exhumed and thrown in the Tiber. Cinna was already dead, killed by his own soldiers in a mutiny.Appian, Civil Wars 1.76-102; Plutarch, Sulla 24-33; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.23-28; Eutropius, Abridgement of Roman History 5; Florus, Epitome of Roman History Wikisource:Epitome of Roman History/Book 2#9 Sulla's proscriptions saw hundreds of his political enemies killed or exiled. Caesar, as the nephew of Marius and son-in-law of Cinna, was targeted. He was stripped of his inheritance, his wife's dowry and his priesthood, but refused to divorce Cornelia and was forced to go into hiding. The threat against him was lifted by the intervention of his mother's family, which included supporters of Sulla, and the Vestal Virgins. Sulla gave in reluctantly, and is said to have declared that he saw many a Marius in Caesar.
Early career
Rather than returning to Rome, Caesar joined the army, serving under Marcus Minucius Thermus in Asia (Roman province) and Servilius Isauricus in Cilicia. He served with distinction, winning the Civic Crown for his part in the siege of Mytilene. On a mission to Bithynia to secure the assistance of King Nicomedes IV of Bithynia's fleet, he spent so long at his court that rumours of an affair with the king arose, which would persist for the rest of his life.Suetonius, Julius 2-3; Plutarch, Caesar 2-3; Cassius Dio, Roman History 43.20 Ironically, the loss of his priesthood had allowed him to pursue a military career: the Flamen Dialis was not permitted to touch a horse, sleep three nights outside his own bed or one night outside Rome, or look upon an army.William Smith, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities: Flamen
In 80 BC, after two years in office, Sulla resigned his dictatorship, re-established consular government and, after serving as consul, retired to private life.Appian. Civil Wars 1.103 Caesar later ridiculed Sulla's relinquishing of the dictatorship—"Sulla did not know his political ABC's".Suetonius, Julius 77. He died two years later in 78 BC and was accorded a state funeral.Plutarch, Sulla 36-38 Hearing of Sulla's death, Caesar felt safe enough to return to Rome. Lacking means since his inheritance was confiscated, he acquired a modest house in the Subura, a lower class neighborhood of Rome.Suetonius, Julius 46 His return coincided with an attempted anti-Sullan coup by Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (120-77 BC), but Caesar, lacking confidence in Lepidus's leadership, did not participate.Suetonius, Julius 3; Appian, Civil Wars 1.107 Instead he turned to legal advocacy. He became known for his exceptional oratory, accompanied by impassioned gestures and a high-pitched voice, and ruthless prosecution of former governors notorious for extortion and Political corruption. Even Cicero praised him: "Come now, what orator would you rank above him...?"Suetonius, Julius 55 Aiming at rhetorical perfection, Caesar travelled to Rhodes in 75 BC to study under Apollonius Molon, who had previously taught Cicero.Suetonius, Julius 4. Plutarch (Caesar 3-4) reports the same events but follows a different chonology.
On the way across the Aegean Sea,Again, according to Suetonius's chronology (Julius 4). Plutarch (Caesar 1.8-2) says this happened earlier, on his return from Nicomedes's court. Velleius Paterculus (Roman History 2:41.3-42 says merely that it happened when he was a young man. Caesar was kidnapped by Cilician piracy and held prisoner in the Dodecanese islet of Farmakos.Plutarch, Caesar 1-2 He maintained an attitude of superiority throughout his captivity. When the pirates thought to demand a ransom of twenty Talent (weight) of gold, he insisted they ask for fifty. After the ransom was paid, Caesar raised a fleet, pursued and captured the pirates, and imprisoned them in Pergamon. The governor of Asia (Roman province) refused to execute them as Caesar demanded, preferring to sell them as slaves, but Caesar returned to the coast and had them crucified on his own authority, as he had promised to when in captivity – a promise the pirates had taken as a joke. He then proceeded to Rhodes, but was soon called back into military action in Asia, raising a band of Auxiliaries (Roman military) to repel an incursion from Pontus.
On his return to Rome he was elected military tribune, a first step on the cursus honorum of Roman politics. The Third Servile War against Spartacus took place around this time (73 - 71 BC), but it is not recorded what role, if any, Caesar played in it. He was elected quaestor for 69 BC, and during that year he delivered the funeral oration for his aunt Julia, widow of Marius, and included images of Marius, unseen since the days of Sulla, in the funeral procession. His own wife Cornelia also died that year. After her funeral Caesar went to serve his quaestorship in Hispania under Antistius Vetus. While there he is said to have encountered a statue of Alexander the Great, and realised with dissatisfaction he was now at an age when Alexander had the world at his feet, while he had achieved comparatively little. He requested, and was granted, an early discharge from his duties, and returned to Roman politics. On his return he married Pompeia Sulla, a granddaughter of Sulla.Suetonius, Julius 5-8; Plutarch, Caesar 5; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.43 He was elected aedile and restored the trophies of Marius's victories; a controversial move given the Sullan regime was still in place. He also brought prosecutions against men who had benefited from Sulla's proscriptions, and spent a great deal of borrowed money on public works and games, outshining his colleague Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus. He was also suspected of involvement in two abortive coup attempts.Suetonius, Julius 9-11; Plutarch, Caesar 5.6-6; Cassius Dio, Roman History 37.8, 10
Caesar comes to prominence
, Vienna
63 BC was an eventful year for Caesar. He persuaded a tribune, Titus Labienus, to prosecute the optimate senator Gaius Rabirius (senator) for the political murder, 37 years previously, of the tribune Lucius Appuleius Saturninus, and had himself appointed as one of the two judges to try the case. Rabirius was defended by both Cicero and Quintus Hortensius, but was convicted of perduellio (treason). While he was exercising his right of appeal to the people, the praetor Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer adjourned the assembly by taking down the military flag from the Janiculum hill. Labienus could have resumed the prosecution at a later session, but did not do so: Caesar's point had been made, and the matter was allowed to drop.Cicero, For Gaius Rabirius; Cassius Dio, Roman History 26-28 Labienus would remain an important ally of Caesar over the next decade.
The same year, Caesar ran for election to the post of Pontifex Maximus, chief priest of the Roman state religion, after the death of Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius, who had been appointed to the post by Sulla. He ran against two powerful optimates, the former consuls Quintus Lutatius Catulus and Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus (consul 79 BCE). There were accusations of bribery by all sides. Caesar is said to have told his mother on the morning of the election that he would return as Pontifex Maximus or not at all, expecting to be forced into exile by the enormous debts he had run up to fund his campaign. In the event he won comfortably, despite his opponents' greater experience and standing.Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.43; Plutarch, Caesar 7; Suetonius, Julius 13 The post came with an official residence on the Via Sacra.
When Cicero, who was consul that year, exposed Catiline's conspiracy to seize control of the republic, Catulus and others accused Caesar of involvement in the plot.Sallust, Catiline War 49 Caesar, who had been elected praetor for the following year, took part in the debate in the Senate on how to deal with the conspirators. During the debate, Caesar was passed a note. Cato the Younger, who would become his most implacable political opponent, accused him of corresponding with the conspirators, and demanded that the message be read aloud. Caesar passed him the note, which, embarrassingly, turned out to be a love letter from Cato's half-sister Servilia Caepionis. Caesar argued persuasively against the death penalty for the conspirators, proposing life imprisonment instead, but a speech by Cato proved decisive, and the conspirators were executed.Cicero, Against Catiline 4.7-9; Sallust, Catiline War 50-55; Plutarch, Caesar 7.5-8.3, Cicero 20-21, Cato the Younger 22-24; Suetonius, Julius 14 The following year a commission was set up to investigate the conspiracy, and Caesar was again accused of complicity. On Cicero's evidence that he had reported what he knew of the plot voluntarily, however, he was cleared, and one of his accusers, and also one of the commissioners, were sent to prison.Suetonius, Julius 17
While praetor in 62 BC, Caesar supported Metellus Celer, now tribune, in proposing controversial legislation, and the pair were so obstinate they were suspended from office by the Senate. Caesar attempted to continue to perform his duties, only giving way when violence was threatened. The Senate was persuaded to reinstate him after he quelled public demonstrations in his favour.Suetonius, Julius 16
That year the festival of the Bona Dea ("good goddess") was held at Caesar's house. No men were permitted to attend, but a young patrician named Publius Clodius Pulcher managed to gain admittance disguised as a woman, apparently for the purpose of seducing Caesar's wife Pompeia Sulla. He was caught and prosecuted for sacrilege. Caesar gave no evidence against Clodius at his trial, careful not to offend one of the most powerful patrician families of Rome, and Clodius was acquitted after rampant bribery and intimidation. Nevertheless, Caesar divorced Pompeia, saying that "my wife ought not even to be under suspicion."Cicero, Letters to Atticus s:Letters to Atticus/1.12, s:Letters to Atticus/1.13, s:Letters to Atticus/1.14; Plutarch, Caesar 9-10; Cassius Dio, Roman History 37.45
After his praetorship, Caesar was appointed to govern Hispania Ulterior (Outer Iberian peninsula), but he was still in considerable debt and needed to satisfy his creditors before he could leave. He turned to Marcus Licinius Crassus, one of Rome's richest men. In return for political support in his opposition to the interests of Pompey, Crassus paid some of Caesar's debts and acted as guarantor for others. Even so, to avoid becoming a private citizen and open to prosecution for his debts, Caesar left for his province before his praetorship had ended. In Hispania he conquered the Callaici and Lusitanians, being hailed as imperator by his troops, reformed the law regarding debts, and completed his governorship in high esteem.Plutarch, Caesar 11-12; Suetonius, Julius 18.1
Being hailed as imperator entitled Caesar to a Roman triumph. However, he also wanted to stand for consul, the most senior magistracy in the republic. If he were to celebrate a triumph, he would have to remain a soldier and stay outside the city until the ceremony, but to stand for election he would need to lay down his command and enter Rome as a private citizen. He could not do both in the time available. He asked the senate for permission to stand in absentia, but Cato blocked the proposal. Faced with the choice between a triumph and the consulship, Caesar chose the consulship.Plutarch, Julius 13; Suetonius, Julius 18.2
First consulship and first triumvirate
The election was dirty. Caesar canvassed Cicero for support, and made an alliance with the wealthy Lucceius, but the establishment threw its financial weight behind the conservative Bibulus, and even Cato, with his reputation for incorruptibility, is said to have resorted to bribery in his favour. Caesar and Bibulus were elected as consuls for 59 BC.Plutarch, Caesar 13-14; Suetonius 19
Caesar was already in Marcus Licinius Crassus's political debt, but he also made overtures to Pompey, who was unsuccessfully fighting the Senate for ratification of his eastern settlements and farmland for his veterans. Pompey and Crassus had been at odds since they were consuls together in 70 BC, and Caesar knew if he allied himself with one he would lose the support of the other, so he endeavoured to reconcile them. Between the three of them, they had enough money and political influence to control public business. This informal alliance, known as the First Triumvirate (rule of three men), was cemented by the marriage of Pompey to Caesar's daughter Julia (daughter of Julius Caesar).Cicero, Letters to Atticus s:Letters to Atticus/2.1, s:Letters to Atticus/2.3, s:Letters to Atticus/2.17; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.44; Plutarch, Caesar 13-14, Pompey 47, Crassus 14; Suetonius, Julius 19.2; Cassius Dio, Roman History 37.54-58 Caesar also married again, this time Calpurnia Pisonis, daughter of Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, who was elected to the consulship for the following year.Suetonius, Julius 21
Caesar proposed a law for the redistribution of public lands to the poor, a proposal supported by Pompey, by force of arms if need be, and by Crassus, making the triumvirate public. Pompey filled the city with soldiers, and the triumvirate's opponents were intimidated. Bibulus attempted to declare the omens unfavourable and thus void the new law, but was driven from the forum by Caesar's armed supporters. His lictors had their fasces broken, two tribunes accompanying him were wounded, and Bibulus himself had a bucket of excrement thrown over him. In fear of his life, he retired to his house for the rest of the year, issuing occasional proclamations of bad omens. These attempts to obstruct Caesar's legislation proved ineffective. Roman satirists ever after referred to the year as "the consulship of Julius and Caesar".Cicero, Letters to Atticus s:Letters to Atticus/2.15, s:Letters to Atticus/2.16, s:Letters to Atticus/2.17, s:Letters to Atticus/2.18, s:Letters to Atticus/2.19, s:Letters to Atticus/2.20, s:Letters to Atticus/2.21; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 44.4; Plutarch, Caesar 14, Pompey 47-48, Cato the Younger 32-33; Cassius Dio, Roman History 38.1-8
When Caesar and Bibulus were first elected, the aristocracy tried to limit Caesar's future power by allotting the woods and pastures of Italy, rather than governorship of a province, as their proconsular duties after their year of office was over.Suetonius, Julius 19.2 With the help of Piso and Pompey, Caesar later had this overturned, and was instead appointed to govern Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy) and Illyricum (Roman province) (the western Balkans), with Transalpine Gaul (southern France) later added, giving him command of four legions. His term of office, and thus his immunity from prosecution, was set at five years, rather than the usual one.Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2:44.4; Plutarch, Caesar 14.10, Crassus 14.3, Pompey 48, Cato the Younger 33.3; Suetonius, Julius 22; Cassius Dio, Roman History 38:8.5 When his consulship ended, Caesar narrowly avoided prosecution for the irregularities of his year in office, and quickly left for his province.Suetonius, Julius 23
Conquest of Gaul
with the head of captive Gaul 48 BC, following the campaigns of Caesar.Caesar was still deeply in debt, and there was money to be made as a provincial governor, whether by extortionSee Cicero's speeches s:Against Verres for an example of a former provincial governor successfully prosecuted for illegally enriching himself at his province's expense. or by military adventurism. Caesar had four legions under his command, two of his provinces, Illyricum (Roman province) and Gallia Narbonensis, bordered on unconquered territory, and independent Gaul was known to be unstable. Rome's allies the Aedui had been defeated by their Gallic rivals, with the help of a contingent of Germanic peoples Suebi under Ariovistus, who had settled in conquered Aeduan land, and the Helvetii were mobilising for a mass migration, which the Romans feared had warlike intent. Caesar raised two new legions and defeated first the Helvetii, then Ariovistus, and left his army in winter quarters in the territory of the Sequani, signaling that his interest in the lands outside Gallia Narbonensis would not be temporary.Cicero, Letters to Atticus s:Letters to Atticus/1.19; Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 1; Appian, Gallic Wars Epit. 3; Cassius Dio, Roman History 38.31-50
He began his second year with double the military strength he had begun with, having raised another two legions in Cisalpine Gaul during the winter. The legality of this was dubious, as the Cisalpine Gauls were not Roman citizens. In response to Caesar's activities the previous year, the Belgae tribes of north-eastern Gaul had begun to arm themselves. Caesar treated this as an aggressive move, and, after an inconclusive engagement against a united Belgic army, conquered the tribes piecemeal. Meanwhile, one legion, commanded by Crassus' son Publius, began the conquest of the tribes of the Armorica.Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 2; Appian, Gallic Wars Epit. 4; Cassius Dio, Roman History 39.1-5
During the spring of 56 BC the Triumvirate held a conference at Luca (modern Lucca) in Cisalpine Gaul. Rome was in turmoil, and Publius Clodius Pulcher' populist campaigns had been undermining relations between Crassus and Pompey. The meeting renewed the Triumvirate and extended Caesar's proconsulship for another five years. Crassus and Pompey would be consuls again, with similarly long-term proconsulships to follow: Syria for Crassus, the Hispanian provinces for Pompey.Cicero, Letters to his brother Quintus 2.3; Suetonius, Julius 24; Plutarch, Caesar 21, Crassus 14-15, Pompey 51 The conquest of Armorica was completed when Caesar defeated the Veneti (Gaul) in a naval battle, while young Crassus conquered the Aquitani of the south-west. By the end of campaigning in 56 BC only the Morini and Menapii of the coastal Low Countries still held out.Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 3; Cassius Dio, Roman History 39.40-46
In 55 BC Caesar repelled an incursion into Gaul by the Germanic Usipetes and Tencteri, and followed it up by building a bridge across the Rhine and making a show of force in Germanic territory, before returning and dismantling the bridge. Late that summer, having subdued the Morini and Menapii, he crossed to Britain, claiming that the Britons had aided the Veneti against him the previous year. His intelligence was poor, and although he gained a beachhead on the Kent coast he was unable to advance further, and returned to Gaul for the winter.Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 4; Appian, Gallic Wars Epit. 4; Cassius Dio, Roman History 47-53 He returned the following year, better prepared and with a larger force, and achieved more. He advanced inland, establishing Mandubracius of the Trinovantes as a friendly king and bringing his rival, Cassivellaunus, to terms. But poor harvests led to widespread revolt in Gaul, led by Ambiorix of the Eburones, forcing Caesar to campaign through the winter and into the following year. With the defeat of Ambiorix, Caesar believed Gaul was now pacified.Cicero, Letters to friends Wikisource:Letters to friends/7.6, Wikisource:Letters to friends/7.7, Wikisource:Letters to friends/7.8, Wikisource:Letters to friends/7.10, Wikisource:Letters to friends/7.17; Letters to his brother Quintus Wikisource:Letters to his brother Quintus/2.13, Wikisource:Letters to his brother Quintus/2.15, Wikisource:Letters to his brother Quintus/3.1; Letters to Atticus Wikisource:Letters to Atticus/4.15, Wikisource:Letters to Atticus/4.17, Wikisource:Letters to Atticus/4.18; Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 5; Cassius Dio, Roman History 40.1-11
While Caesar was in Britain his daughter Julia, Pompey's wife, had died in childbirth. Caesar tried to resecure Pompey's support by offering him his great-niece Octavia Minor in marriage, alienating Octavia's husband Gaius Claudius Marcellus Minor, but Pompey declined. In 53 BC Crassus was killed leading a failed invasion of Parthia. Rome was on the edge of violence. Pompey was appointed sole consul as an emergency measure, and married Cornelia Metella, daughter of Caesar's political opponent Quintus Metellus Scipio, whom he invited to become his consular colleague once order was restored. The Triumvirate was dead.Suetonius, Julius ; Plutarch, Caesar 23.5, Pompey 53-55, Crassus 16-33; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 46-47
In 52 BC another, larger revolt erupted in Gaul, led by Vercingetorix of the Arverni. Vercingetorix managed to unite the Gallic tribes and proved an astute commander, defeating Caesar in several engagements including the Battle of Gergovia, but Caesar's elaborate siege-works at the Battle of Alesia finally forced his surrender.Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 7; Cassius Dio, Roman History 40.33-42 Despite scattered outbreaks of List of Roman battles the following year,Aulus Hirtius, Commentaries on the Gallic War s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 8 Gaul was effectively conquered.
Titus Labienus was Caesar's most senior legatus during his Gallic campaigns, having the status of propraetor.Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 1#21 Other prominent men who served under him included his relative Lucius Julius Caesar, Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 7#65 Crassus' sons MarcusJulius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 6#6 and Publius,Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 2#34 Cicero's brother Quintus Tullius Cicero,Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 6#32 &f. Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus,Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 3#11 and Mark Antony.Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 7#81 &f.
Civil war
In 50 BC, the Senate, led by Pompey, ordered Caesar to return to Rome and disband his army because his term as Proconsul had finished. Moreover, the Senate forbade Caesar to stand for a second consulship in absentia. Caesar thought he would be prosecuted and politically marginalised if he entered Rome without the immunity enjoyed by a Consul or without the power of his army. Pompey accused Caesar of insubordination and treason. On January 10, 49 BC Caesar crossed the Rubicon (the frontier boundary of Italy) with only Legio XIII Gemina and ignited Caesar's civil war. Upon crossing the Rubicon, Caesar is reported to have quoted the Athenian playwright Menander, saying alea iacta est, "the dice have been thrown".
The Optimates, including Metellus Scipio and Cato the Younger, fled to the south, having little confidence in the newly raised troops especially since so many cities in northern Italy had voluntarily capitulated. An attempted stand by a consulate legion in Samarium resulted in the consul being handed over by the defenders and the legion surrendering without significant fighting. Despite greatly outnumbering Caesar, who only had his Legio XIII Gemina with him, Pompey had no intention to fight. Caesar pursued Pompey to Brindisium, hoping to capture Pompey before the trapped Senate and their legions could escape. Pompey managed to elude him, sailing out of the harbor before Caesar could break the barricades.
Lacking a navy since Pompey had already scoured the coasts of all ships for evacuation of his forces, Caesar decided to head for Hispania saying "I set forth to fight an army without a leader, so as later to fight a leader without an army." Leaving Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir) as prefect of Rome, and the rest of Italy under Mark Antony as tribune, Caesar made an astonishing 27-day route-march to Hispania, rejoining two of his Gallic legions, where he defeated Pompey's lieutenants. He then returned east, to challenge Pompey in Greece where on July 10, 48 BC at Battle of Dyrrhachium (48 BC) Caesar barely avoided a catastrophic defeat when the line of fortification was broken. He decisively defeated Pompey, despite Pompey's numerical advantage (nearly twice the number of infantry and considerably more cavalry), at Battle of Pharsalus in an exceedingly short engagement in 48 BC.
In Rome, Caesar was appointed Roman dictator, with Mark Antony as his Master of the Horse; Caesar resigned this dictatorate after 11 days and was elected to a second term as consul with Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus (consul 48 BCE) as his colleague.
He pursued Pompey to Alexandria, where Pompey was murdered by a former Roman officer serving in the court of Ptolemy XIII of Egypt. Caesar then became involved with the Alexandrine civil war between Ptolemy and his sister, wife, and co-regent queen, the Pharaoh Cleopatra VII of Egypt. Perhaps as a result of Ptolemy's role in Pompey's murder, Caesar sided with Cleopatra; he is reported to have wept at the sight of Pompey's head, which was offered to him by Ptolemy's chamberlain Pothinus as a gift. In any event, Caesar defeated the Ptolemaic forces in 47 BC in the Battle of the Nile (47 BC) and installed Cleopatra as ruler, with whom he is suspected to have fathered a son, Caesarion. Caesar and Cleopatra celebrated their victory of the Alexandrine civil war through a triumphant procession on the Nile in the spring of 47 B.C. The royal barge was accompanied by 400 additional ships, introducing Caesar to the luxurious lifestyle of the Egyptian pharoahs.
Caesar and Cleopatra never married: they could not do so under Roman Law. The institution of marriage was only recognised between two Roman citizens; Cleopatra was Queen of Egypt. In Roman eyes, this did not constitute adultery, and Caesar is believed to have continued his relationship with Cleopatra throughout his last marriage, which lasted 14 years and produced no children. Cleopatra visited Rome on more than one occasion, residing in Caesar's villa just outside Rome across the Tiber.
After spending the first months of 47 BC in Egypt, Caesar went to the Middle East, where he annihilated King Pharnaces II of Pontus in the Battle of Zela; his victory was so swift and complete that he mocked Pompey's previous victories over such poor enemies. Thence, he proceeded to Africa to deal with the remnants of Pompey's senatorial supporters. He quickly gained a significant victory at Battle of Thapsus in 46 BC over the forces of Metellus Scipio (who died in the battle) and Cato the Younger (who committed suicide). Nevertheless, Pompey's sons Gnaeus Pompeius and Sextus Pompeius, together with Titus Labienus, Caesar's former propraetorian legate (legatus promagistrates) and second in command in the Gallic War, escaped to Hispania. Caesar gave chase and defeated the last remnants of opposition in the Battle of Munda in March 45 BC. During this time, Caesar was elected to his third and fourth terms as consul in 46 BC (with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)) and 45 BC (without colleague).
Aftermath of the civil war
While he was still campaigning in Hispania, the Senate began bestowing honours on Caesar in absentia. Caesar had not proscribed his enemies, instead pardoning almost all, and there was no serious public opposition
Julius Caesar
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